People

Ethnic Groups and Languages

People of Mongol ethnicity make up 90 percent of the population. Khalkha (Halh) Mongols constitute the great majority, while other ethnic Mongols exist in smaller numbers. Kazakhs constitute the country’s largest ethnic minority. They speak a Turkic language and reside almost entirely in the western provinces of Mongolia. Other groups include Chinese and Russians.
The country’s official language is Mongolian, which is one of the Altaic languages. The traditional Mongol script is written vertically and from left to right. It was officially replaced in the 1940s by the Russian alphabet, Cyrillic, with several symbols added specifically for Mongolian. In 1990 the Mongolian government reinstated the traditional script as part of its efforts to promote Mongol culture, and the script began to be taught in schools. However, for everyday purposes the Cyrillic script is still widely used.

Religion

The traditional faith in Mongolia is Tibetan Buddhism, also called Lamaism. Tibetan Buddhism gained ascendancy in Mongolia in the 1500s. For centuries the Lamaist hierarchy, headed by a Living Buddha, held great power, both spiritually and in the aristocracy. However, in 1924 the last Living Buddha died and a communist government came to power. The government brutally suppressed the practice of religion and persecuted Buddhist leaders. Few monasteries were spared complete destruction, mainly to function as museums. Restrictions on religious practice were lifted in the late 1980s as part of broad political and social reforms, sparking a revival of Buddhism in Mongolia. Some of the surviving monasteries were subsequently restored and reopened.

Education

Mongolia has a high literacy rate: 99.2 percent in 2005. Education in Mongolia is compulsory between the ages of 8 and 16. In the 2006 school year 91 percent of primary-aged children attended school. The secondary school enrollment rate was 84 percent in 2002–2003. Several institutions of higher education are located in Ulaanbaatar. They include the National University of Mongolia (founded in 1942), the Mongolian University of Science and Technology (1969), and the Mongolian University of Arts and Culture (1990).

Man from the Dachard Depression - North Mongolia	Dancer wearing traditional Khalkh Mongolian costume
Kazakh lady and child, Bayan Olgii - West Mongolia	Darkhad community group. with Morrin Khuur

Arts and Music

Mongolia has a rich cultural heritage. Some remnants of ancient cultures exist, including Stone Age rock and cave paintings. Ancient rock formations called deer stones are believed to mark gravesites. Techniques in metal casting, leatherwork, and embroidery have been developed by Mongol nomads over thousands of years. The nomadic way of life is evident in portable works of art such as ornate saddles and jewelry, as well as in decorative pieces for the traditional nomad dwellings, called ger in Mongolia. Many Mongols continue to live in these portable round tents, which have a wooden frame covered in thick felt in winter or a lighter canvas in summer. Some Buddhist monasteries in Mongolia share the same basic framework as the ger.

As in other nomadic societies, Mongols developed a strong folklore tradition of myths, proverbs, and epics, all passed down orally through the generations. Many traditional stories are sung rather than spoken. The tatlaga is a genre of instrumental music that evokes melody, rhythm, and timbre (tone quality) to tell a story. In the song form known as urtyn duu (long song), each syllable is extended for a long duration in a guttural style requiring great skill. Most Mongolian songs relate an intimate relationship with nature and are accompanied by traditional musical instruments. The most common instrument is the morin-khuur, a two-stringed lute with a wooden sound box and a neck scroll carved in the form of a horse’s head. 

Tibetan Buddhism inspired the religious art of Mongolia beginning in the 16th century. Paintings called tankas, silk appliqué, and gilt bronze sculpture depict the Buddha as well as a huge pantheon of gods and goddesses. The first Living Buddha of Mongolia, Zanabazar, was exceptionally skilled in metal sculpture. Also highly influential as the Mongol religious and political leader, Zanabazar initiated a golden age in Mongol art during his reign from 1639 to 1723. Cultural contacts with Tibet and China flourished.

Religious iconography was strongly discouraged during the communist period, which spanned much of the 20th century. Painters and other artists were expected to uphold the government’s ideals of socialist realism. References to Mongol culture before the communist revolution in 1924 were systematically censored. Some modern artists explore traditional aspects of Mongol culture in their works, including painter Tod Otgonbayar, who has achieved international recognition.

Libraries and Museums

The National Archives of Mongolia and the State Central Library, both located in Ulaanbaatar, contain some 3 million volumes, including many rare and ancient editions. The Gandan Library, founded in 1838 in the Gandantegchinlen Buddhist monastery in Ulaanbaatar, holds a collection on Buddhist theology and philosophy. Major museums are located in the capital. The National Museum of Mongolian History presents exhibits on Mongolian history and culture from ancient times to the present day. The Natural History Museum contains dinosaur eggs and skeletons from the Gobi desert. The Zanabazar Museum of Fine Arts contains religious sculptures of Mongolia’s first Living Buddha and other examples of Mongolian Buddhist art.